Evidence collection2 July 2026

COVID-19 and animals

This evidence collection draws together resources and research on the impact of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in animals and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on animal health and welfare.

Introduction

COVID-19 is the official designation of the human disease caused by the novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2) first identified in Wuhan China in December 2019 and leading to a pandemic from 2020–2023.

Although COVID-19 is a disease of people, with the virus being spread through direct (human to human) or indirect (human to surface to human) contact, concerns were raised that animals could be involved in COVID-19 in three main ways:

they could be contaminated with live virus and act as fomites
they could become infected with SARS-CoV-2 and develop signs of infection
they could become infected and pass on the virus to other animals or humans.

Initial evidence about the impact of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in animals and their role in the epidemiology of disease came from case reports of potentially infected animals, published in the media and on government websites and then reported in published literature. These reports led to experimental studies which looked at the susceptibility of different species to the virus and their potential role in transmission. Later epidemiological studies were published which reported on the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in different populations of animals. More recently review articles have been published bringing together a wider range of evidence on the role of animals on animal health and welfare.

Our first evidence collection on this subject included news reports and pre-prints as well as published evidence. We have recently reviewed the evidence collection and curated the references in a way that makes it easier to find the information you need.

The first section provides background information, including resources from organisations and review articles that provide an overview of what was known about the SARS-CoV-2 in animals at the time of publication.
The second section provides published evidence about SARS-CoV-2 in animals, grouped by animal type. This section includes case reports of animals infected with SARS-CoV-2, experimental studies, including those on diagnostic testing and vaccination, and epidemiological studies which provide reports of outbreaks and surveillance studies.
The final section looks at the impact of the pandemic on animal health and welfare and on the provision of veterinary services.

This evidence collection provides a useful resource detailing the development of our knowledge of a novel disease and the importance of understanding the implications of diseases which can affect both humans and animals from a One Health perspective.

Part 1: Background information

OIE (2020) Questions and answers on the 2019 Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) [online]. Available from: https://www.woah.org/fileadmin/Home/MM/A_COVID-27.11.2020.pdf [Accessed 24 June 2026; last updated 27 November 2020]
University of Guelph Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses (2021) COVID-19 veterinary resources and documents. Worms & Germs Blog [online]. Available from: https://www.wormsandgermsblog.com/covid19resources/ [Accessed 24 June 2026; last updated 23 December 2021]
World Small Animal Veterinary Association. COVID-19 and pets: what you and your clients need to know [online]. Available from: https://wsava.org/updates/covid-19-and-pets-what-you-and-your-clients-need-to-know/ [Accessed 24 June 2026; last updated 12 March 2020]
University of Guelph Centre for Public Health and Zoonoses. Worms & Germs Blog: Search results: COVID [online]. Available from: https://www.wormsandgermsblog.com/?s=COVID [Accessed 24 June 2026]
Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs; Animal and Plant Health Agency (2020) Coronavirus (COVID-19): advice for people in England with animals [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/coronavirus-covid-19-advice-for-people-with-animals [Accessed 24 June 2026; last updated 21 March 2022]
OIE (2020) Guidance on working with farmed animals of species susceptible to infection with SARS-CoV-2 [online]. Available from: https://www.woah.org/app/uploads/2021/12/en-oie-guidance-farmed-animals-.pdf [Accessed 24 June 2026; last updated June 2021]

References

Anderson, K.G. et al. (2020) The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nature Medicine, 26, pp. 450–452. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9
Wan, Y. et al. (2020) Receptor recognition by novel coronavirus from Wuhan: an analysis based on decade-long structural studies of SARS Coronavirus. Journal of Virology, 94 (7). https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00127-20
Hobbs, E.C. and Reid, T.J. (2020). Animals and SARS‐CoV‐2: Species susceptibility and viral transmission in experimental and natural conditions, and the potential implications for community transmission. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 68 (4), pp. 1850–1867. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13885
Alexander, M.R. et al. (2020) Predicting susceptibility to SARS‐CoV‐2 infection based on structural differences in ACE2 across species. The FASEB Journal, 34 (2), pp. 15946–15960. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.202001808R
O’Connor, A.M, Totton, S.C. and Sargeant, J.M. (2020) A rapid review of evidence of infection of pets and livestock with human-associated coronavirus diseases, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19, and evidence of the fomite potential of pets and livestock. Systematic Reviews for Animals and Food [online]. Available from: www.aavld.org/assets/1_Oasis2020/HomePage/COVID-19Info/Rapid-Review-of-pets-as-fomites_3.pdf [Accessed 24 June 2026; last updated 10 April 2020]
Awada, L. et al. (2024) Facing SARS-CoV-2 emergence on the animal health perspective: The role of the World Organisation for Animal Health in preparedness and official reporting of disease occurrence. Zoonoses and Public Health, 71 (6), pp. 683–695. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.13133
Decaro, N. et al. (2020) COVID-19 from veterinary medicine and one health perspectives: What animal coronaviruses have taught us. Research in Veterinary Science, 131, pp. 21–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.04.009
Reggiani, A., Rugna, G. and Bonilauri, P. (2022) SARS-CoV-2 and animals, a long story that doesn’t have to end now: What we need to learn from the emergence of the Omicron variant. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 1085613. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1085613

Part 2: SARS-CoV-2 in animals

This section contains a curated collection of the published evidence relating to SARS-CoV-2 in animals. It includes published reports of animals that were naturally exposed or infected with SARS-CoV-2, providing useful information on the susceptibility and clinical signs. Also included are experimental studies reporting which animals can be experimentally infected with SARS-CoV-2 and transmit the virus to other animals under experimental conditions. This section also includes epidemiological studies into SARS-CoV-2 in different groups of animals. In interpreting and comparing the results of these studies is important to be clear about which population of animals was sampled, and which diagnostic tests were carried out.

At the end of this section are links to a small number of references related to diagnostic testing for and vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 infection in animals.

Further details of reported cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection in animals can be found on the following websites:

World Organisation for Animal Health. SARS-CoV-2 [online]. Available from: https://www.woah.org/en/disease/sars-cov-2/#ui-id-2 [Accessed 24 June 2026; last updated 24 October 2023]
Complexity Science Hub. SARS-ANI VIS: a global open access dataset of reported SARS-CoV-2 events in animals [online]. Available from: https://vis.csh.ac.at/sars-ani/#infections [Accessed 29 June 2026; last updated 26 March 2025]

2a. Review / multispecies

de Morais, H.A. et al. (2020) Natural infection by SARS-CoV-2 in companion animals: a review of case reports and current evidence of their role in the epidemiology of COVID-19. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, no. 591216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.591216
Shi, J. et al. (2020) Susceptibility of ferrets, cats, dogs, and other domesticated animals to SARS–coronavirus 2. Science, 368 (6494), pp. 1016–1020. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb7015
Schlottau, K. et al. (2020) SARS-CoV-2 in fruit bats, ferrets, pigs, and chickens: an experimental transmission study. The Lancet Microbe, 1 (5), pp. E218-E225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-5247(20)30089-6

Salajegheh Tazerji, S. et al. (2024) The risk of pet animals in spreading severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and public health importance: An updated review. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 10 (1), no. e1320. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.1320
Ehrlich, M. et al. (2023) Lack of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA detection among a convenience sampling of Ohio wildlife, companion, and agricultural animals, 2020–2021. Animals, 13 (16), no. 2554. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162554
Loy, D.S. et al. (2025) SARS-CoV-2 surveillance and detection in wild, captive, and domesticated animals in Nebraska: 2021–2023. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, no. 1496207. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1496207
Italiya, J. et. al. (2025) Wildlife sentinel: development of multispecies protein A-ELISA for detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in zoo animals as a proof of concept for wildlife surveillance. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 62 (2), pp. 396–407. https://doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-24-00028
Nederlof, R.A., de la Garza, M.A. and Bakker, J. (2024) Perspectives on SARS-CoV-2 cases in zoological institutions. Veterinary Sciences, 11 (2), no. 78. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11020078

2b. Dogs and cats

Case studies

Carpenter, A. et al. (2021) Determining the role of natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in the death of domestic pets: 10 cases (2020–2021). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 259 (9), pp.1032–1039. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.259.9.1032
Hamer, S.A. et al. (2022). SARS‐CoV‐2 B. 1.1. 7 variant of concern detected in a pet dog and cat after exposure to a person with COVID‐19, USA. Transboundary and emerging diseases, 69 (3), pp.1656–1658. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14122
Miró, G. et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 infection in one cat and three dogs living in COVID-19-positive households in Madrid, Spain. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 779341. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.779341
Ferasin, L. et al. (2021) Infection with SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7 detected in a group of dogs and cats with suspected myocarditis. Veterinary Record, 189 (9), no. e944 https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.944
Keller, M. et al. (2021) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 variant B.1.1.7 in a cat in Germany. Research in Veterinary Science, 140, pp. 229–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.09.008
Barroso-Arévalo, S. et al. (2022) First detection of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant of concern in a symptomatic cat in Spain. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 841430. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.841430
Curukoglu, A. et al. (2021) First direct human‐to‐cat transmission of the SARS‐CoV‐2 B.1.1.7 variant. Australian Veterinary Journal, 99 (11), pp. 482–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13109
Hosie, M.J. et al. (2021) Detection of SARS‐CoV‐2 in respiratory samples from cats in the UK associated with human‐to‐cat transmission. Veterinary Record, 188 (8), no. e247. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.247
Pecora, A. et al. (2022) Anthropogenic infection of domestic cats with SARS-CoV-2 alpha variant B.1.1.7 lineage in Buenos Aires. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 790058. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.790058
Wendling, N.M. et al. (2022) Transmission of SARS‐CoV‐2 Delta variant (B.1.617.2) from a fully vaccinated human to a canine in Georgia, July 2021. Zoonoses and Public Health, 69 (5), pp. 587–592. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12944
Padilla-Blanco, M. et al. (2022) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in a dog with hemorrhagic diarrhea. BMC Veterinary Research, 18, no. 370. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03453-8
Colitti, B. et al. (2022) Pulmonary fibrosis in a dog as a sequela of infection with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2? A case report. BMC Veterinary Research, 18, no. 111. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03191-x
Sit, T.H.C. et al. (2020) Infection of dogs with SARS-CoV-2. Nature, 586, pp. 776–778. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2334-5

Experimental studies – including diagnostics and vaccination

Bosco-Rauth, A.M. et al. (2020) Experimental infection of domestic dogs and cats with SARS-CoV-2: Pathogenesis, transmission, and response to reexposure in cats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117 (42), pp. 26382–26388. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2013102117
Lean, F.Z.X. et al. (2022) Elevated angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) expression in cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Research in Veterinary Science, 152, pp. 564–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.09.024
Chiba, S. et al. (2021) Protective immunity and persistent lung sequelae in domestic cats after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (2), pp. 660–663. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2702.203884
Kim, D-H. et al. (2023) Neurologic effects of SARS-CoV-2 transmitted among dogs. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 29 (11), pp. 2275–2284. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2911.230804
de Souza Barbosa, A.B. et al. (2022) Infection of SARS-CoV-2 in domestic dogs associated with owner viral load. Research in Veterinary Science, 153, pp. 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.10.006
Diezma-Díaz, C. et al. (2023) A comparative study of eight serological methods shows that spike protein-based ELISAs are the most accurate tests for serodiagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infections in cats and dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1121935. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1121935
Ratti, G. et al. (2022) Comparison of diagnostic performances of different serological tests for SARS‐CoV‐2 antibody detection in cats and dogs. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (6), pp. 3530–3539. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14716
Deng, K. et al. (2022) Second round of an interlaboratory comparison of SARS-CoV2 molecular detection assays used by 45 veterinary diagnostic laboratories in the United States. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 34 (5), pp. 825–834 https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387221115702
Michael, H.T. et al. (2021) Frequency of respiratory pathogens and SARS‐CoV‐2 in canine and feline samples submitted for respiratory testing in early 2020. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 62 (5), pp. 336–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13300
Thieulent, C.J. et al. (2024) Development and validation of multiplex one-step qPCR/RT-qPCR assays for simultaneous detection of SARS-CoV-2 and pathogens associated with feline respiratory disease complex. PLOS One, 19 (3), no. e0297796. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297796
Bold, D. et al. (2022) Development of an indirect ELISA for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in cats. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 864884. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.864884
Barroso-Arévalo, S. et al. (2022) A subunit vaccine candidate based on the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 prevents infectious virus shedding in cats. Research in Veterinary Science, 148, pp 52–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.05.003
Tabynov, K. et al. (2022) A Spike protein-based subunit SARS-CoV-2 vaccine for pets: safety, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy in juvenile cats. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 815978. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.815978
Hoyte, A. et al. (2022) Experimental veterinary SARS-CoV-2 vaccine cross neutralization of the Delta (B.1.617.2) variant virus in cats. Veterinary Microbiology, 268, no. 109395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109395

Epidemiological studies

Fritz, M. et al. (2020) High prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in pets from COVID-19+ households. One Health, 11, no. 100192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2020.100192
Fischer, E.A. et al. (2023) Contribution of cats and dogs to SARS-CoV-2 transmission in households. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1151772. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1151772
Kannenkens-Jager, M.M. et al. (2022) SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in dogs and cats is associated with contact to COVID‐19‐positive household members. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (6), pp. 4034–4040. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14713
Bienzle, D. et al. (2022) Risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection and illness in cats and dogs. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 28 (6), pp. 1154–1162. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2806.220423

Non-domestic settings

van Aart, A.E. et al. (2021) SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in cats and dogs in infected mink farms. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (5), pp. 3001-3007. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14173
Okwumabua, O. et al. (2025) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 and a possible variant in shelter cats. PLoS One, 20 (1), no. e0317104. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317104
van der Leij, W.J.R. et al. (2021) Serological screening for antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in Dutch shelter cats. Viruses, 13 (8), no. 1634. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081634
Schulz, C. et al. (2021) Prolonged SARS-CoV-2 RNA shedding from therapy cat after cluster outbreak in retirement home. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (7), pp. 1974–1976. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2707.204670
Villanueva‐Saz, S. et al. (2021) Serological evidence of SARS‐CoV‐2 and co‐infections in stray cats in Spain. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (3), 1056–1064. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14062
Guimarães Nilsson, M. et al. (2024) High seroprevalence for SARS-CoV-2 infection in dogs: Age as risk factor for infection in shelter and foster home animals. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 222, no. 106094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.106094
Temmam, S. et al. (2020) Absence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in cats and dogs in close contact with a cluster of COVID-19 patients in a veterinary campus. One Health, 10, no. 100164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2020.100164
Sparrer, M.N. et al. (2023) SARS-CoV-2 surveillance in a veterinary health system provides insight into transmission risks. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 262 (1), pp. 93–99. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.05.0229

By geographical location

Smith, S.L. et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 neutralising antibodies in dogs and cats in the United Kingdom. Current Research in Virological Science, 2, no. 100011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crviro.2021.100011
Schulz, C. et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2–specific antibodies in domestic cats during first COVID-19 wave, Europe. Emerging infectious Diseases, 27 (12), pp. 3115 – 3118. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2712.211252
Fritz, M. et al. (2024) A large‐scale serological survey in pets from October 2020 through June 2021 in France shows significantly higher exposure to SARS‐CoV‐2 in cats compared to dogs. Zoonoses and Public Health, 72 (2), pp. 184–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.13198
Klein, C. et al. (2023) Dogs and cats are less susceptible to the Omicron variant of concern of SARS-CoV-2: A field study in Germany, 2021/2022. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, no. 1868732. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1868732

Barroso‐Arévalo, S. et al. (2021) Large‐scale study on virological and serological prevalence of SARS‐CoV‐2 in cats and dogs in Spain. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (4), pp. e759–e774. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14366
Barroso-Arévalo S. et al. (2023) SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence studies in pets, Spain. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 29 (6), pp. 1136–1142. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2906.221737
Fernández-Bastit, L. et al. (2022) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) infection and humoral responses against different variants of concern in domestic pet animals and stray cats from North‐Eastern Spain. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (6), pp. 3518–3529. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14714
Sánchez-Morales, L. et al. (2022) The Omicron (B.1.1.529) SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern also affects companion animals. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 940710. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.940710
Ruiz‐Arrondo, I. et al. (2020), Detection of SARS‐CoV‐2 in pets living with COVID‐19 owners diagnosed during the COVID‐19 lockdown in Spain: A case of an asymptomatic cat with SARS‐CoV‐2 in Europe. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 68 (2), pp. 973–976. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13803
Moutinho, I. et al. (2024) SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in indoor house cats from the Lisbon area during the COVID-19 pandemic, 2019–2021. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, no. 1543922. https://doi.org/10.1155/tbed/1543922

Patterson, E.I. et al. (2020) Evidence of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in cats and dogs from households in Italy. Nature Communications, 11, no. 6231. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20097-0
Kaczorek-Łukowska, E. et al. (2022) High seroprevalence against SARS-CoV-2 among dogs and cats, Poland, 2021/2022. Animals, 12 (16), no. 2016. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12162016
Pomorska-Mól, M. et al. (2021) A cross-sectional retrospective study of SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in domestic cats, dogs and rabbits in Poland. BMC Veterinary Research, 17, no. 332. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-03033-2
Turlewicz-Podbielska, H. et al. (2025) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in companion animals in Poland during the post-pandemic period (2022–2025). BMC Veterinary Research, 22, no. 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-025-05187-9
Stevanovic, V. et al. (2021) Seroprevalence of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection among pet animals in Croatia and potential public health impact. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 68 (4), pp. 1767-1773. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13924
Mūrniece, G. et al. (2023) Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in domestic cats (Felis catus) during COVID-19 pandemic in Latvia. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 10 (3), no. e1338. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.1338

Daigle, L. et al. (2024) High prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and low prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in cats recently exposed to human cases. BMC Veterinary Research, 20, no. 304. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04150-4
Smith, S.J. et al. (2025) Surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in pets of Harris County, Texas, revealed more common pet infections in households with human COVID-19 cases. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 11 (2), no. e70218. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.70218
Meisner, J. et al. (2023) Household transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to pets, Washington and Idaho, USA. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 28 (12), pp. 2425–2434. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2812.220215
Liew, A.Y. et al. (2023) Clinical and epidemiologic features of SARS-CoV-2 in dogs and cats compiled through national surveillance in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261 (4), pp. 480–489. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.22.08.0375
Durden, C. et. al. (2025) High SARS-CoV-2 exposure in feline residents of a cat café in Texas, United States, 2021–2022. Veterinary Sciences, 12 (4), no. 389. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12040389
Chen, D. et al. (2023) Prevalence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and feline enteric coronavirus (FECV) in shelter-housed cats in the Central Valley of California, USA. Veterinary Record Open, 10 (2), no. e73. https://doi.org/10.1002/vro2.73
Chen, C. et al. (2024) Spatial and temporal clustering of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in Illinois household cats, 2021–2023. PLOS One, 19 (5), no. e0299388. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299388

Calvet, G.A. et al. (2021) Investigation of SARS-CoV-2 infection in dogs and cats of humans diagnosed with COVID-19 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. PLOS One, 16 (4), no. e0250853. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250853
Suwanpakdee, S. et al. (2024) Sero-epidemiological investigation and cross-neutralization activity against SARS-CoV-2 variants in cats and dogs, Thailand. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, no. 1329656. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1329656
Sila, T. et al. (2022) Suspected cat-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2, Thailand, July–September 2021. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 28 (7), pp. 1485–1488. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2807.212605
Shin, Y-K. et al. (2022) Whole genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in cats and dogs in South Korea in 2021. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (1), no. 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10010006
Ulloa, A. et al. (2025) Frontiers | High seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in cats linked to human infection in a Latin American country with elevated COVID-19 transmission and mortality. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, no. 1503000. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1503000
Moutinho, I. et al. (2025) Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in cats from COVID-19 positive households in the Lisbon area. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, no. 1542397. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1542397

2c. Hamsters

Yen, H.L. et al. (2022) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 delta variant (AY.127) from pet hamsters to humans, leading to onward human-to-human transmission: a case study. The Lancet, 399 (10329), pp. 1070–1078.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00326-9
Sia, S.F. et al. (2020) Pathogenesis and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in golden hamsters. Nature, 583 (7818), pp. 834–838. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2342-5
Osterrieder, N. et al. (2020) Age-dependent progression of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Syrian hamsters. Viruses, 12 (7), no. 779. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12070779
Chan, J.F.W. et al. (2022). Probable animal-to-human transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Delta variant AY.127 causing a pet shop-related coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in Hong Kong. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 75 (1), pp. e76-e81. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciac171
Clancy, C.S. et al. (2023) Histopathologic characterization of experimental peracute SARS-CoV-2 infection in the Syrian hamster. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (9), no. 536. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10090536

2d. Mustelids

Domestic ferrets

Gortazar, C. et al. (2021) Natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in kept ferrets, Spain. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (7), pp. 1994–1996. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2707.210096
Sawatzki, K. et al. (2021) Host barriers to SARS-CoV-2 demonstrated by ferrets in a high-exposure domestic setting. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118 (18), no. e2025601118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2025601118
Castro-Martínez, A.E. et al. (2025) SARS-CoV-2 and distemper co-infection in a domestic ferret. Case report. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 52, pp. 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2024.12.001
Račnik, J. et al. (2021) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from human to domestic ferret. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (9), pp. 2450–2453. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201%2Feid2709.210774
Kaczorek-Łukowska, E. et al. (2023) No indication for SARS-CoV-2 transmission to pet ferrets, in five cities in Poland, 2021 – antibody testing among ferrets living with owners infected with SARS-CoV-2 or free of infection. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 65, no. 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-023-00672-3
Barroso-Arévalo, S. et al. (2024) Comparative SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.5 variant and D614G-Wuhan strain infections in ferrets: insights into attenuation and disease progression during subclinical to mild COVID-19. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, 1435464. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1435464
Kutter, J.S. et al. (2021) SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 are transmitted through the air between ferrets over more than one meter distance. Nature Communications, 12, no. 1653. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21918-6
Richard, M. et al. (2020) SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted via contact and via the air between ferrets. Nature Communications, 11, no. 3496. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17367-2
Kim, Y. et al. (2020) Infection and rapid transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in ferrets. Cell Host & Microbe, 27 (5), pp. 704–709.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2020.03.023
Camba Caride, E. et al. (2025) Treatment with subcutaneous GS‐441524 in ferrets affected by ferret systemic coronavirus‐associated disease: seven cases (2021‐2024). Journal of Small Animal Practice, 66 (12), pp. 877–885. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.13906

Farmed mink

Quaade, M.L. et al. (2025) Subclinical and long-term effects of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection in Danish farmed mink: implications for disease surveillance. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 67, no. 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-025-00813-w
Molenaar, R.J. et al. (2020) Clinical and Pathological Findings in SARS-CoV-2 Disease Outbreaks in Farmed Mink (Neovison vison). Veterinary Pathology, 57 (5), pp. 653–657.https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985820943535
Virtanen, J. et al. (2022) Experimental infection of Mink with SARS-COV-2 Omicron variant and subsequent clinical disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 28 (6), pp. 1286–1288. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2806.220328
Pulido, J. et al. (2022) Receptor-binding domain–based immunoassays for serosurveillance differentiate efficiently between SARS-CoV2–exposed and non-exposed farmed mink. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 34 (2), pp 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387211057859
Santman-Berends, I.M.G.A. et al. (2024) Effectiveness of passive and active surveillance for early detection of SARS-CoV-2 in mink during the 2020 outbreak in the Netherlands. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, no. 4793475. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/4793475
Hammer, A.S. et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 transmission between mink (Neovison vison) and humans, Denmark. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (2), pp. 547–551. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2702.203794
Sikkema, R. S. et al. (2022) Risks of SARS-CoV-2 transmission between free-ranging animals and captive mink in the Netherlands. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (6), 3339–3349. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14686
Oude Munnink, B.B. et al. (2021) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on mink farms between humans and mink and back to humans. Science, 371 (6525), pp.172–177. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe5901
Rabalski, L. et al. (2021) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in farmed mink (Neovison vison), Poland. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (9), p. 2333–2339. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2709.210286
Himsworth, C.G. et al. (2023) A comparison of sampling and testing approaches for the surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in farmed American mink. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 35 (5), pp. 528–534. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387231183685
Žigaitė, S. et al. (2023) Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 passive surveillance in Lithuanian mink farms, 2020–2021. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1181826

Feral mink

Shriner, S.A. et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 exposure in escaped mink, Utah, USA. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (3), pp. 988–990. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201%2Feid2703.204444
Suita, F. et al. (2025) Four novel SARS-CoV-2 infected feral American mink (Neovison vison) among 60 individuals caught in the wild. Animals, 15 (11), no. 1636. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15111636

Wild mustelids

Davoust, B. et al. (2022) Evidence of antibodies against SARS‐CoV‐2 in wild mustelids from Brittany (France). Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (5), pp. e3400–e3407. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14663
Padilla-Blanco, M. et al. (2022) The finding of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in a wild Eurasian river otter (Lutra lutra) highlights the need for viral surveillance in wild mustelids. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 826991. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.826991

2e. Livestock

Fiorito, F. et al. (2022) First description of serological evidence for SARS-CoV-2 in lactating cows. Animals, 12 (11), no. 1459. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12111459
Wernike, K. et al. (2022) Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 suggestive of single events of spillover to cattle, Germany. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 28 (9), pp. 1916–1918. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2809.220125

Ellis, J. et al. (2023) SARS coronavirus 2-reactive antibodies in bovine colostrum. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 64 (4), pp. 337–343. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10031788/ [Accessed 1 July 2026]
Rooney, T.A. et al. (2023) Subcutaneous and intramuscular administration of a SARS-CoV-2 vaccine are similarly effective in generating a humoral response in domestic goats (Capra hircus). American Journal of Veterinary Research, 84 (10), pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.23.05.0117
Ulrich, L. et al. (2020) Experimental infection of cattle with SARS-CoV-2. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 26 (12), pp. 2979–2981. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2612.203799.
Pickering, B.S. et al. (2021) Susceptibility of domestic swine to experimental infection with SARS-CoV-2. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (1), pp. 104–112. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2701.203399.

2f. Equine

Legere, R.M. et al. (2023) Equine bronchial epithelial cells are susceptible to cell entry with a SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus but reveal low replication efficiency. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 84 (9). https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.23.06.0132
Pusterla, N., Lawton, K. and Barnum, S. (2023) Investigation of the seroprevalence to equine coronavirus and SARS-CoV-2 in healthy adult horses recently imported to the United States. Veterinary Quarterly, 44 (1), pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2023.2288876

2g. Other species

SARS-CoV-2 infection has also been detected in a wide range of other species both in captivity and on the wild.

Cristiano, D.J. et al. (2026). SARS-CoV-2 infections among animals in US zoological institutions resulted primarily from human-to-animal transmission without evidence of sustained evolution in animals (2020–2023). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association [online early], pp.1–11. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.25.11.0738
Joffrin, L. et al. (2023) SARS-CoV-2 Surveillance between 2020 and 2021 of all mammalian species in two Flemish zoos (Antwerp Zoo and Planckendael Zoo). Veterinary Sciences, 10 (6), no. 382. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10060382
Mathavarajah, S. et al. (2020) Pandemic danger to the deep: the risk of marine mammals contracting SARS-CoV-2 from wastewater. Science of The Total Environment, 760, no.143346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143346
Wilson-Henjum, G. et al. (2025) Community-scale surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A viruses in wild mammals, United States, 2022–2023. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 31 (8), pp. 1625–1629. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3108.241671

Large cats

Heniff, A.C. et al. (2024) SARS-CoV-2 morbidity, treatment interventions, and vaccination practices in tigers (Panthera tigris ssp) in North American zoos. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 262 (7), pp. 1–7. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.01.0030
Ip, Y. et al. (2023) Anthropogenic Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to lions, Singapore, 2021. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 29 (12), pp. 2550–2553. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2912.221916
Drozd, M. et al. (2024) Mortality associated with SARS-CoV-2 in nondomestic felids. Veterinary Pathology, 61 (4), pp. 609–620. https://doi.org/10.1177/03009858231225500
Siegrist, A.A. et al. (2023) Probable transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from African lion to zoo employees, Indiana, USA, 2021. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 29 (6), pp. 1102–1108. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2906.230150
Wang, L. et al. (2022) Detection of SARS‐CoV‐2 clade B.1.2 in three snow leopards. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (5), pp. e3346–e3351. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14625

Karikalan, M. et al. (2021) Natural infection of Delta mutant of SARS‐CoV‐2 in Asiatic Lions of India. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 69 (5), pp. 3047–3055. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14290
Mishra, A. et al. (2021) SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant among Asiatic Lions, India. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27 (10), pp. 2723–2725. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2710.211500
Tewari, D. et al. (2023) SARS-CoV-2 infection dynamics in the Pittsburgh Zoo wild felids with two viral variants (Delta and Alpha) during the 2021–2022 pandemic in the United States. Animals, 13 (19), no. 3094. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13193094
McAloose, D. et al. (2020). From people to Panthera: Natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in tigers and lions at the Bronx Zoo. MBio, 11 (5). https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.02220-20

Deer

World Organisation for Animal Health. OIE Statement on monitoring white-tailed deer for SARS-CoV-2 [online]. Available from: https://www.oie.int/en/oie-statement-on-monitoring-white-tailed-deer-for-sars-cov-2/ [Accessed 1 July 2026; last updated 3 December 2021]
McBride, D.S. et al. (2023) Accelerated evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in free-ranging white-tailed deer. Nature Communications, 14, no. 5105. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40706-y
Ferreira, F.C. et. al. (2025) Respiratory shedding of infectious SARS-CoV-2 Omicron XBB.1.41.1 lineage among captive white-tailed deer, Texas, USA. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 31 (2), pp. 267–274. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3102.241458
Tarbuck, N.N. et al. (2025) Persistence of SARS-CoV-2 Alpha variant in white-tailed deer, Ohio, USA. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 31 (7), pp. 1319–1329. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3107.241922
Rosenblatt, E.G. et al. (2025) Fomites could determine severity of SARS‐CoV‐2 outbreaks in low‐density white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, no. 1352911. https://doi.org/10.1155/tbed/1352911
Palmer, M.V. et al. (2021) Susceptibility of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to SARS-CoV-2. Journal of Virology, 95 (11). https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00083-21
Purves, K. et al. (2024) SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity in urban population of wild fallow deer, Dublin, Ireland, 2020-2022. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 30 (8), pp. 1609–1620. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3008.231056
Encinas, P. et al. (2023) SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing antibodies in free-ranging fallow deer (Dama dama) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) in suburban and rural areas in Spain. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, no. 3324790. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/3324790
Porter, S.M. et al. (2024) Experimental SARS-CoV-2 infection of elk and mule deer. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 30 (2), pp. 354–357. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3002.231093
Hewitt, J. et. al. (2025) Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 antibody detection methods for wild Cervidae. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 241, no. 106522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2025.106522

Non-human primates

Pereira, A.H.B. et al. (2022) Natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in a free-ranging black-tailed marmoset (Mico melanurus) from an urban area in mid-west Brazil. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 194, pp. 22–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2022.03.005
Oh, T., Hong, J.J. and Park, J-H. (2024) Histopathological pulmonary lesions in rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and cynomolgus (Macaca fascicularis) macaques experimentally infected with wild-type severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 208, pp. 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2023.10.008
Musoles-Cuenca, B. et al. (2024) Molecular and serological studies on potential SARS-CoV-2 infection among 43 lemurs under human care—evidence for past infection in at least one individual. Animals. 14 (1), no. 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14010140
Cano-Terriza, D. et al. (2024) SARS-CoV-2 in captive nonhuman primates, Spain, 2020-2023. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 30 (6), pp. 1253–1257. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3006.231247

Bats

Common, S.M. et al. (2021) The risk from SARS‐CoV‐2 to bat species in England and mitigation options for conservation field workers. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (2), pp. 694–705. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14035
Botto Nunez, G. et al. (2020) IUCN SSC Bat Specialist Group (BSG) recommended strategy for researchers to reduce the risk of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to bats [online]. Available from: https://www.iucnbsg.org/uploads/6/5/0/9/6509077/map_recommendations_for_researchers_v._1.0_final.pdf [Accessed 1 July 2026; last updated 22 July 2020]

Other species

Allender, M.C. et al. (2022) Multi‐species outbreak of SARS‐CoV‐2 Delta variant in a zoological institution, with the detection in two new families of carnivores. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (5), pp. e3060–e3075. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14662
Freuling, C.M. et al. (2020) Susceptibility of Raccoon Dogs for experimental SARS-CoV-2 infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 26 (12), pp. 2982–2985. https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2612.203733
Porter, S.M. et al. (2022) Susceptibility of wild canids to SARS-CoV-2. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 28 (9), pp. 1852–1855. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2809.220223.
Italiya, J. et al. (2023) First detection of SARS-CoV-2 in white rhinoceros during a small-scale coronavirus surveillance in the Bandia Reserve, Senegal. Animals, 13 (16), no. 2593. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162593
Vercammen, F. et al. (2023) SARS-CoV-2 infection in captive hippos (Hippopotamus amphibius), Belgium. Animals, 13 (2), no. 316. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13020316
Didkowska, A. et. al. (2025) Presence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in European bison (Bison bonasus) in Poland, 2019–2023. BMC Veterinary Research, 21, no. 120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-025-04593-3
Domanska-Blicharz, K. et al. (2024) Whole genome characteristics of hedgehog coronaviruses from Poland and analysis of the evolution of the Spike protein for its interspecies transmission potential. BMC Veterinary Research, 20, no. 424. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04277-4
Takemura, T. et al. (2024) SARS-CoV-2 infection in beaver farm, Mongolia, 2021. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 30 (2), pp. 391–394. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3002.231318
Colombo, V.C. et al. (2022) SARS‐CoV‐2 surveillance in Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from Antwerp sewer system, Belgium. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 69 (5), pp. 3016–3021. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14219.
Wang, Y. et al. (2023). SARS-CoV-2 exposure in Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from New York City. MBio, 14 (2), pp. e03621–e03622. https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.03621-22

Part 3: Impact of the pandemic

The COVID pandemic had a significant impact on many aspects of life, including on animal ownership, the delivery of veterinary services and veterinary education. A number of articles and surveys have been published on the impact of the pandemic, which may provide information of interest and provide lessons for the future.

3a. One welfare

Pinillos, R.G. (2021) One welfare impacts of COVID-19 – A summary of key highlights within the one welfare framework. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 236, no. 105262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105262
Ratschen, E. et al. (2020) Human-animal relationships and interactions during the Covid-19 lockdown phase in the UK: Investigating links with mental health and loneliness. PLOS One, 15 (9), no. e0239397. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239397
Fine, L. et al. (2022) Staff perceptions of COVID-19 impacts on wildlife conservation at a zoological institution. Zoo Biology, 41 (3), pp. 234–243. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21669
Hockenhull, J. and Furtado, T. (2021) Escaping the gilded cage: Could COVID-19 lead to improved equine welfare? A review of the literature. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 237, no. 105303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105303

3b. Animal ownership

Germann, J.A. et al. (2024) Biosecurity perceptions among Ontario horse owners during the COVID-19 pandemic. Equine Veterinary Journal, 57 (2), pp. 459–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14115
King, E.K. et al. (2024) Longitudinal patterns of companion animals in families with children during the COVID-19 pandemic: Findings from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study®. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, no. 1364718. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1364718
Hoffman, C.L., Thibault, M. and Hong, J. (2021) Characterizing pet acquisition and retention during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 781403. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.781403
Laconi, A. et al. (2023) SARS-CoV-2 and companion animals: Sources of information and communication campaign during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (7), no. 426. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10070426
Mokos, J. et al. (2025) Short-term effects of pet acquisition and loss on well-being in an unbiased sample during the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientific Reports, 15, no. 20267. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-06987-7
Brooks, S.K. and Greenberg, N. (2023) The well-being of companion animal caregivers and their companion animals during the COVID-19 pandemic: Scoping review. Animals, 13 (20), no. 3294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13203294
Carroll, G.A., Torjussen, A. and Reeve, C. (2022) Companion animal adoption and relinquishment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Peri-pandemic pets at greatest risk of relinquishment. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 1017954. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1017954
Barklam, E.B. and Felisberti, F.M. (2022) Pet ownership and wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic: the importance of resilience and attachment to pets. Anthrozoös, 36 (2), pp. 215–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2022.2101248
Martinez-Caja, A.M. et al. (2022) Pet ownership, feelings of loneliness, and mood in people affected by the first COVID-19 lockdown. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 57, pp. 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2022.09.008
Schor, M. and Protopopova, A. (2021) Effect of COVID-19 on pet food bank servicing: quantifying numbers of clients serviced in the Vancouver Downtown Eastside, British Columbia, Canada. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 730390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.730390
Siettou, C. (2021) Societal interest in puppies and the Covid-19 pandemic: A Google Trends analysis. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 196, no. 105496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105496
Martinez-Caja, A.M. et al. (2022) Pet ownership, feelings of loneliness and mood in people affected by the first COVID-19 lockdown. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 57, pp. 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2022.09.008
Packer, R. et al. (2021) Pandemic puppies: characterising motivations and behaviours of UK owners who purchased puppies during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. Animals, 11 (9), no. 2500. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11092500
Martinez-Caja, A.M. et al. (2021) Pets and their owners during the first COVID-19 lockdown period: perceived changes in routines and emotions – an exploratory study. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 48, 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2021.09.009.
Wells, D.L. et al. (2022) Quality of the human–animal bond and mental wellbeing during a COVID-19 lockdown. Anthrozoös, 35 (6), pp. 847–866. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2022.2051935
Phillipou, A. et al. (2021) Pet ownership and mental health during COVID-19 lockdown. Australian Veterinary Journal, 99 (10), pp. 423–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13102
Vučinić, M., Vučićević, M. and Nenadović, K. (2022) The COVID-19 pandemic affects owners walking with their dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 48, pp. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2021.10.009.

Castillo, C. and Hernández Bermúdez, J. (2021) The COVID pandemic should introduce new habits for pet owners. Research in Veterinary Science, 139, pp. 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.06.016
Gunter, L.M. (2022) Emergency fostering of dogs from animal shelters during the COVID-19 pandemic: shelter practices, foster caregiver engagement, and dog outcomes. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 862590. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.862590
Huseman, C. et al. (2021) Early evidence of the economic effects of COVID-19 on the horse show industry in 2020. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 106, no. 103734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103734

3c. Impact on animals / animal welfare

Behaviour

Manning, P. et al. (2023) The effect of COVID-19 lockdown restrictions on self-directed behaviour, activity budgets, movement patterns, and spatial use in semi-captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 266, no. 106007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2023.106007
Takahashi, S. et al. (2025) Covid-19 pandemic: Effect of changes in the owner’s life on dog behavior. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 81, pp. 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2025.07.005
Weng, H-Y. and Ogata, N. (2023) The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on pet behavior and human-animal interaction: a longitudinal survey-based study in the United States. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1291703. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1291703
Takagi, S. et al. (2023) Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the behavioural tendencies of cats and dogs in Japan. Animals, 13 (13), no. 2217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13132217
Sherwell, E-G. et al. (2023) Changes in dog behaviour asociated with the COVID-19 lockdown, pre-existing separation-related problems and alterations in owner behaviour. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (3), no. 195. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10030195
Sacchettino, L. et al. (2023) Puppies raised during the COVID-19 lockdown showed fearful and aggressive behaviors in adulthood: An Italian survey. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (3), no. 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10030198
Riggio, G. et al. (2022) Cat-owner relationship and cat behaviour: Effects of the COVID-19 confinement and implications for feline management. Veterinary Sciences, 9 (7), no. 369. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci9070369

Health

Canfield, M. et al. (2023) Remote monitoring of canine patients treated for pruritus during the COVID-19 pandemic in Florida using a 3-D accelerometer. Animals, 13 (24), no. 3875. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13243875
Finstad, J.B., Rozanski, E.A. and Cooper, E.S. (2023) Association between the COVID-19 global pandemic and the prevalence of cats presenting with urethral obstruction at two university veterinary emergency rooms. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 25 (2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X221149377
Hickey, M.C., Napier, E and Ong, H.M. (2022) Effect of COVID-19 lockdown on small animal trauma patterns in Australia: a multicentre study. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 908679. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.908679
Owczarczak-Garstecka, S.C. et al. (2022) Impacts of COVID-19 on owner’s veterinary healthcare seeking behaviour for dogs with chronic conditions: an exploratory mixed-methods study with a convenience sample. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 902219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.902219
Jezierski, T. et al. (2021) Changes in the health and behaviour of pet dogs during the COVID-19 pandemic as reported by the owners. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 241, no. 105395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105395

Brand, C.L. et al. (2022) Pandemic puppies: demographic characteristics, health and early life experiences of puppies acquired during the 2020 phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK. Animals, 12 (5), no. 629. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12050629
Ward, A.B. et al. (2021) COVID-19 impacts equine welfare: Policy implications for laminitis and obesity. PLOS One, 16 (5), no. e0252340. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252340

Veterinary practice

Elane, G.L., Blikslager, A.T. and Mair, T.S. (2024) Trends in the management of horses referred for colic evaluation preceding and during the COVID-19 pandemic (2013–2023). Equine Veterinary Education, 37 (6), pp. 308–315. https://doi.org/10.1111/eve.14038
Nichelason, A. and Genovese, J. (2023) The COVID-19 pandemic negatively impacted veterinary client satisfaction and loyalty. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261 (11), pp. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.06.0351
Humer, E. et al. (2024) Veterinary medicine under COVID-19: a mixed-methods analysis of student and practitioner experiences in Austria. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, no. 1460269. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1460269
Darby, B.J. et al. (2023) Veterinarians show resilience during COVID-19: challenges faced and successful coping strategies. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261 (6), pp. 888–897. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.22.12.0584
Russon, J.M. et al. (2023) Career stage differences in mental health symptom burden and help seeking among veterinarians during COVID-19. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261 (6), pp. 898–906. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.22.12.0583
Dubin, R.J. et al. (2021) Veterinarians’ perceptions of COVID-19 pandemic–related influences on veterinary telehealth and on pet owners’ attitudes toward cats and dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 259 (10), pp. 1140–1147. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.21.04.0203
Smith, S.M. et al. (2022) Opportunities for expanding access to veterinary care: lessons from COVID-19. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 804794. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.804794
Morris, A., Wu, H. and Morales, C. (2021) Barriers to care in veterinary services: lessons learned from low-income pet guardians’ experiences at private clinics and hospitals during COVID-19. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 764753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.764753
Mureşan, A.N. et al. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic during lockdown on the veterinary profession in Romania: a questionnaire-based survey. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 737914. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.737914
Quain, A., Mullan, S. and Ward, M.P. (2021) Risk factors associated with increased ethically challenging situations encountered by veterinary team members during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 752388. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.752388
Quain, A., Mullan, S. and Ward, M.P. (2021) Communication challenges experienced by veterinary professionals during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Australian Veterinary Journal, 100 (1–2), pp. 79–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13125
Quain, A. et al. (2021) Frequency, stressfulness and type of ethically challenging situations encountered by veterinary team members during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 647108. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.647108
Mair, T.S. et al. (2021) Mental wellbeing of equine veterinary surgeons, veterinary nurses and veterinary students during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Equine Veterinary Education, 33 (1), pp. 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/eve.13399.
Rowe, Z.C. et al. (2022) Challenges faced by U.S. veterinary technicians in the workplace during COVID-19. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 831127. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.831127
Caney, S.M.A. et al. (2022) Veterinary surgeons’, veterinary nurses’ and owners’ experiences of feline telemedicine consultations during the 2020 COVID‐19 pandemic. Veterinary Record, 191 (5), no. e1738. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.1738
Guerios, S.D. et al. (2022) COVID-19 associated reduction in elective spay-neuter surgeries for dogs and cats. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 912893. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.912893
Muñoz, K.A. et al. (2022) The impact of COVID-19 on access to canine integrative medical care in Michigan, USA, and Ontario and British Columbia, Canada. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 49 (6), pp. 580–588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2022.08.004
Owczarczak‐Garstecka, S.C. et al. (2022) Accessing veterinary healthcare during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A mixed‐methods analysis of UK and Republic of Ireland dog owners’ concerns and experiences. Veterinary Record, 191 (3), no. e1681. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.1681
Allen, S.E. et al. (2023) A study of the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on equine veterinary care in the UK. Veterinary Record Open, 10 (2), no. e74. https://doi.org/10.1002/vro2.74

3d. Veterinary education

Yi, J. et al. (2024) Student and clinical educator perceptions of the impacts of COVID-19 on final-year veterinary clinical training in a distributed learning model. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 51 (4), pp. 461–472. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme-2023-0004
Langebæk, R. et al. (2024) A collaborative response to the COVID-19 challenge: Developing an international platform for sharing e-learning materials for veterinary education. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 51 (4), pp. 422–430. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme-2023-0039
Luethy, D. et al. (2023) Cross-sectional study of physical activity, dietary habits, and mental health of veterinary students after lifting of COVID-19 pandemic measures. PLOS One, 18 (9), no. e0291590. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291590
Karabulut-Ilgu, A. and Burzette, R.G. (2023) An exploratory study of the impact of COVID-19 pandemic disruptions on veterinary medical education. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 52 (1), pp. 81–92. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme-2023-0049
Kanwischer, M., Tipold, A. and Schaper, E. (2024) Veterinary teaching in COVID-19 times: perspectives of university teaching staff. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, no. 1386978. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1386978
Schroeder, C.A. (2024) Perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on residency training in American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia programs in North America: a quantitative survey. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 51 (5), 458–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaa.2024.06.007
Limper, C.B., Hinckley-Boltax, A.L. and Cazer, C.L. (2021) Brief research report: Veterinary student perspective on COVID-19 and veterinary medicine. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 723890. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.723890
McKee, H. et al. (2021) High psychosocial work demands, decreased well-being, and perceived well-being needs within veterinary academia during the COVID- 19 pandemic. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 746716. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.746716
Simons, M. C., Pulliam, D. and Hunt, J. A. (2022) The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on veterinary clinical and professional skills teaching delivery and assessment format. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 50 (1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme-2021-0106

About evidence collections

Evidence collections bring together collections of published papers on topics of interest and importance to the veterinary professions. Papers are chosen for relevance and accessibility, with the full text of articles either being available through the RCVS Knowledge library, on open access or from other publications to which a significant number of veterinary professionals are likely to have access. This means that there may be relevant evidence that is not included.

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