Evidence collection1 October 2025

Stem cells – what is the evidence?

This evidence collection draws together research on stem cells.

Evidence-based veterinary medicine Medicine

Introduction

Stem cells are cells that can develop into different types of tissue. They occur naturally in the early embryo, but recent advances in science and technology that have enabled the reprogramming of somatic cells to take on stem cell like properties have opened many opportunities for research and clinical practice.

It is hoped that stem cells will enable regenerative medicine where cells can be reprogrammed to repair and replace damaged tissues and reverse disease and restore normal function. However, research in this area is at an early stage in both human and veterinary medicine.

This is a rapidly developing area and with licensed stem cell products now becoming available in veterinary medicine it is important to understand the different types of stem cells and current state of evidence.

The aim of this evidence collection is to provide links to appropriate evidence and resources to enable you to understand and critically evaluate the claims being made about current and future uses of stem cells in veterinary medicine.

Lopes, R.S. et al. (2025) Knowledge of companion animals’ practitioners on stem-cell based therapies in a clinical context: a questionnaire-based survey in Portugal. BMC Veterinary Research, 21, no. 487. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-025-04872-z
Morawska-Kozłowska, M., Pitas, M. and Zhalniarovich, Y. (2025) Mesenchymal stem cells in veterinary medicine – still untapped potential. Animals, 15 (8), no. 1175. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15081175
Volga, M. et al. (2025) Stem cells in veterinary medicine—current state and treatment options. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00278
Colbath, A.C. et al. (2024) Review of cellular therapies provides new insights into the potential treatment of diverse neurologic diseases in horses and dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.12.0709
Sharun, K. et al. (2024) Minimal criteria for reporting mesenchymal stem cells in veterinary regenerative medicine. Veterinary Research Communications. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11259-024-10398-w
Smith, A. (2006) A glossary for stem-cell biology. Nature, 441, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04954
Takahashi, K. et al. (2007) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell, 131 (5), pp. 861-872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.11.019
Cossu, G. et al. (2018) Lancet Commission: Stem cells and regenerative medicine. The Lancet, 391 (10123), pp. 883-910. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31366-1
Guidelines for stem cell research and clinical translation [International Society for Stem Cell Research] [online] Available from: https://www.isscr.org/guidelines [Accessed 23 February 2024]
Guest, D.J. et al. (2022) Position statement: minimal criteria for reporting veterinary and animal medicine research for mesenchymal stromal/stem cells in orthopedic applications. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 817041. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.817041

Stem cells in veterinary medicine

This section provides references that discuss our current state of knowledge relating to the different types of stem cells. This is followed more specific references to the potential use of stem cells in veterinary practice.

Induced pluripotent stem cells

Induced pluripotent stem cells have the ability to be develop into all the cell types of the body. This avoids some of the ethical implications of using embryonic stem cells but requires very tightly controlled conditions to determine how they will develop.

Cebrian-Serrano, A., Stout, T. and Dinnyes, A. (2013) Veterinary applications of induced pluripotent stem cells: regenerative medicine and models for disease? The Veterinary Journal, 198 (1), pp. 34-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.03.028
de Figueiredo Pessôa, L.V., Bressan, F.F. and Freude, K.K. (2019) Induced pluripotent stem cells throughout the animal kingdom: availability and applications. World Journal of Stem Cells, 11 (8), p. 491-505. https://doi.org/10.4252%2Fwjsc.v11.i8.491
Stanton, M.M. et al. (2019) Prospects for the use of induced pluripotent stem cells in animal conservation and environmental protection. Stem Cells Translational Medicine, 8 (1), pp. 7-13. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.18-0047
Scarfone, R.A. et al. (2020) The use of induced pluripotent stem cells in domestic animals: a narrative review. BMC Veterinary Research, 16 (1), pp. 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-020-02696-7
Barrachina, L. et al. (2023) Induced pluripotent stem cells in companion animals: how can we move the field forward? Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1176772. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1176772

Mesenchymal stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells are naturally present in various tissues, including bone marrow, adipose tissue (fat), and umbilical cord tissue. They are multipotent meaning that they can develop into a range of cell types, often related to their tissue of origin.

The activation of mesenchymal stem cells may be referred to as licensing, not to be confused with the product licensing of medicinal products.

It is also important to consider the evidence regarding the advantages and disadvantages of allogenic versus autologous stem cells.

Luque, R.M. et. al. (2025) Treatment outcomes for equine osteoarthritis with mesenchymal stromal cells and hyaluronic acid. Equine Veterinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14531
Johnson, V.A. (2024) Review of current and potential applications of mesenchymal stem cells in exotic animal species. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.01.0034
Webb, T.L. and Webb, C.B. (2024) Scoping review of the use of mesenchymal stem and stromal cell products in cats, Part 2: current scope and efficacy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.02.0080
Webb, T.L. and Webb, C.B. (2024) Scoping review of the use of mesenchymal stem and stromal cell products in cats, Part 1: current logistics and safety. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.24.02.0074
Barrachina, L. et al. (2018) Practical considerations for clinical use of mesenchymal stem cells: From the laboratory to the horse. The Veterinary Journal, 238, pp. 49-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2018.07.004
Prządka, P. et al. (2021) The role of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in veterinary medicine and their use in musculoskeletal disorders. Biomolecules, 11 (8), p.1141. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11081141
Cequier, A. et al. (2021) The usefulness of mesenchymal stem cells beyond the musculoskeletal system in horses. Animals, 11 (4), no. 931. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11040931
Baouche, M. et al. (2023) Mesenchymal stem cells: Generalities and clinical significance in feline and canine medicine. Animals, 13 (12), no. 1903. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13121903
Colbath, A.C. et al. (2020) Mesenchymal stem cells for treatment of musculoskeletal disease in horses: Relative merits of allogeneic versus autologous stem cells. Equine Veterinary Journal, 52 (5), pp. 654-663. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13233
Koch, D.W. and Schnabel, L.V. (2023) Mesenchymal stem cell licensing: enhancing MSC function as a translational approach for the treatment of tendon injury. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 84 (10), pp. 1-8. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.23.07.0154
Ivanovska, A. et al. (2022) Manufacturing mesenchymal stromal cells for the treatment of osteoarthritis in canine patients: challenges and recommendations. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 897150. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.897150

Adipose derived stem cells

Adipose derived stem cells are a sub-types of mesenchymal stem cells derived from adipose tissue.

Petrova, V. and Vachkova, E. (2023) Outlook of adipose-derived stem cells: Challenges to their clinical application in horses. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (5), no. 348. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10050348
Ferreira-Baptista, C. et al. (2023) Influence of the anatomical site on adipose tissue-derived stromal cells’ biological profile and osteogenic potential in companion animals. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (12), no. 673. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10120673

Small animal

Choi, Y. et al. (2025) Treatment of canine pancreatitis using membrane-free stem cell extract and its anti-inflammatory effect. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1590703
Cai, X.L. and Zaki, S. (2025) The effect of intra-articular platelet-rich plasma injection on pain and lameness in dogs with osteoarthritis. Australian Veterinary Journal, 103 (10), pp. 663-671. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13473
Taheri, M.J. et al. (2025) Clinical outcomes of stem cell therapy in dogs with keratoconjunctivitis sicca; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Veterinary Ophthalmology. https://doi.org/10.1111/vop.70045
Choi, Y. et al. (2025) Treatment of canine pancreatitis using membrane-free stem cell extract and its anti-inflammatory effect. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1590703
Kang, M.H. and Park, H.M. (2020) Challenges of stem cell therapies in companion animal practice. Journal of Veterinary Science, 21 (3). https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2020.21.e42
Webb, T.L. (2020) Stem cell therapy and cats: what do we know at this time. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 50 (5), pp. 955-971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2020.06.002
Quimby, J.M. (2019) Stem cell therapy. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 49 (2), pp. 223-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2018.10.001
Wang, Y. et al. (2023) Stem cell terapy for aging related diseases and joint diseases in companion animals. Animals, 13 (15), no. 2457. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13152457
Jeung, S. et al. (2024) Safety and efficacy of canine gonadal tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells for early myxomatous mitral valve disease. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1404607
Cho, H.S. et al. (2024) Intravenous injection of allogenic canine mesenchymal stem cells in 40 client-owned dogs: a safety assessment in veterinary clinical trials. BMC Veterinary Research, 20, no. 375 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04216-3
Armitage, A.J. et al. (2023) Efficacy of autologous mesenchymal stromal cell treatment for chronic degenerative musculoskeletal conditions in dogs: A retrospective study. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, no. 1014687. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1014687
Moloney, M. (2022) In dogs with osteoarthritis, is intra-articular allogenic mesenchymal stem cell therapy more effective than placebo effect? Veterinary Evidence, 7 (3). https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v7i3.473
Kim, T.-Y. et al. (2025) Evaluation of cognitive and mobility function in geriatric dogs following treatment with stem cell and stem cell extracellular vesicles derived from embryonic stem cells: a pilot study. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1549870
Nekouei, O. et al. (2024) Effectiveness of mesenchymal stem cell therapy in cats with chronic gingivostomatitis. Veterinary Evidence, 9 (1). https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v9i1.680
Olsson, D.C. et al. (2021) Administration of mesenchymal stem cells from adipose tissue at the hip joint of dogs with osteoarthritis: A systematic review. Research in Veterinary Science, 135, pp. 495-503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.11.014
Kiefer, K. M. et al. (2016) Does adipose-derived stromal cell adjuvant therapy for fragmented medial coronoid process in dogs influence outcome? A pilot project. Veterinary Evidence, 1 (4). https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v1i4.45

Equine

Boone, L. and Peroni, J. (2023) Introduction to equine biologic and regenerative therapies. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice, 39 (3), pp.419-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2023.06.006
Koch, T.G., Kuzma-Hunt, A.G. and Russell, K.A. (2023) Overview of equine stem cells: Sources, practices, and potential safety concerns. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice, 39 (3), pp. 461-474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2023.06.008
Gugjoo, M.B. and Sharma, G.T. (2019) Equine mesenchymal stem cells: properties, sources, characterization, and potential therapeutic applications. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 72, pp. 16-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2018.10.007
Ursini, T.L. et al. (2019) Retrospective analysis of local injection site adverse reactions associated with 230 allogenic administrations of bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells in 164 horses. Equine Veterinary Journal, 51 (2), pp. 198-205. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12992

Livestock

Shi, L. et al. (2025) Advancements in stem cell applications for livestock research: A review. Veterinary Sciences, 12 (5), 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12050397
Ogorevc, J., Orehek, S. and Dovč, P. (2016) Cellular reprogramming in farm animals: an overview of iPSC generation in the mammalian farm animal species. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 7 (1), pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-016-0070-3
Lu, Y. et al. (2012) Livestock induced pluripotent stem cells. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 47, pp. 72-76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0531.2012.02057.x
Kumar, D. et al. (2015) Induced pluripotent stem cells: mechanisms, achievements and perspectives in farm animals. World Journal of Stem Cells, 7 (2), p. 315. https://doi.org/10.4252/wjsc.v7.i2.315
Weeratunga, P., Harman, R.M. and Van de Walle, G.R. (2023) Induced pluripotent stem cells from domesticated ruminants and their potential for enhancing livestock production. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1129287. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1129287

Regenerative medicine

Regenerative medicine is defined as the process of replacing or regenerating cells, tissues, or organs to restore or establish normal function, this may include the use of stem cells.

This section includes references to the clinical use of stem cells in veterinary practice, while references relating to specific products are included in the section below.

Colomer-Selva, R. et. al. (2025) Physiological factors affecting platelet-rich plasma variability in human and veterinary medicine. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1571373
Del Prete, C. et al. (2024) Use of regenerative medicine in the treatment of endometritis in mares: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Theriogenology, 227, pp. 9-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2024.07.006
M’Cloud, W.R.C. et al. (2024) Stem cells and platelet-rich plasma for the treatment of naturally occurring equine tendon and ligament injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.23.12.0723
Purbantoro, S.D. et al. (2024) Trends of regenerative tissue engineering for oral and maxillofacial reconstruction in veterinary medicine. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, no. 1325559. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1325559
Boone, L. and Peroni, J. (2023) Introduction to equine biologic and regenerative therapies. Veterinary Clinics: Equine Practice, 39 (3), pp. 419-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2023.06.006
Carr, B.J. (2023) Regenerative medicine and rehabilitation therapy in the canine. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice, 53 (4), pp. 801-827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2023.02.011
Pérez Fraile, A. et al. (2023) Regenerative medicine applied to musculoskeletal diseases in equines: A systematic review. Veterinary Sciences, 10 (12), no. 666. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10120666
Mayet, A., Zablotski, Y., Roth, S.P., Brehm, W. and Troillet, A., 2023. Systematic review and meta-analysis of positive long-term effects after intra-articular administration of orthobiologic therapeutics in horses with naturally occurring osteoarthritis. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, p.1125695. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1125695
Everett, J.B. et al. (2023) Intra-articular bone marrow mononuclear cell therapy improves lameness from naturally occurring equine osteoarthritis. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1256284
Durgam, S., and Stewart, M. (2017) Evidence supporting intralesional stem cell therapy to improve equine flexor tendon healing. Veterinary Evidence, 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.18849/ve.v2i1.50

Currently licensed products in the UK

The collection, storage, processing, production and administration of stem cells to be used as an autologous treatment for non-food producing animals in Great Britain requires a non-food animal stem cell centre authorisation (ASCCA). In Northern Ireland the requirements only apply to non-food producing equines, for which you must hold an equine stem cell centre authorisation (ESCCA).

Further details can be found here: Veterinary Medicines Directorate [2015] Guidance: Specific manufacturing authorisations [VMD] [online]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/apply-for-autogenous-vaccine-non-food-animal-blood-bank-equine-stem-cell-centre-authorisation#contents [Accessed 12 May 2025]

There are also now a number of licensed stem cell medicinal products available. Below are links to the Summary of Product Characteristics, available on the VMD website. Along with references relating to the specific type of stem cells included in the product.

Arte Cell

Arte Cell includes chondrogenic induced equine allogeneic peripheral blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells and is indicated for the “Reduction of mild to moderate recurrent lameness associated with non-septic joint inflammation in horses”.

Veterinary Medicines Directorate (2023) Summary of Product Characteristics: Arte Cell Forte suspension for injection for horses. Available from: https://www.vmd.defra.gov.uk/ProductInformationDatabase/files/SPC_Documents/SPC_2223841.PDF [Accessed 23 February 2024]

Broeckx, S.Y. et al. (2019) The use of equine chondrogenic‐induced mesenchymal stem cells as a treatment for osteoarthritis: A randomised, double‐blinded, placebo‐controlled proof‐of‐concept study. Equine Veterinary Journal, 51 (6), pp. 787-794. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.13089
Coomer, R.P. et al. (2024) Allogeneic chondrogenic‐induced mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of tarsometatarsal lameness in horses. Veterinary Surgery, 53 (1), pp. 175-183. https://doi.org/10.1111/vsu.14030

RenuTend

RenuTend suspension for injection for horses contains tenogenic primed equine allogeneic peripheral blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells and is indicated “To restore fibre alignment in horses with superficial digital flexor tendon or suspensory ligament fibre disruption”.

Veterinary Medicines Directorate (2022) Summary of Product Characteristics: RenuTend suspension for injection for horses. Available from: https://www.vmd.defra.gov.uk/ProductInformationDatabase/files/SPC_Documents/SPC_2322283.PDF [Accessed 26 February 2024]

Stephanie, C. et al. (2024) Safety assessment of equine allogeneic tenogenic primed mesenchymal stem cells in horses with naturally occurring tendon and ligament injuries. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, no. 1282697. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2024.1282697
Depuydt, E. et al. (2022) Cellular and humoral immunogenicity investigation of single and repeated allogeneic Tenogenic primed mesenchymal stem cell treatments in horses suffering from tendon injuries. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, no. 789293. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.789293
Carlier, S. et al. (2023) Equine allogeneic tenogenic primed mesenchymal stem cells: A clinical field study in horses suffering from naturally occurring superficial digital flexor tendon and suspensory ligament injuries. Equine Veterinary Journal. https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14008

HorStem

HorStem suspension for injection for horses contains equine umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells and is indicated for the “Reduction of lameness associated with mild to moderate degenerative joint disease (osteoarthritis) in horses”.

Veterinary Medicines Directorate (2021) Summary of Product Characteristics: HorStem suspension for injection for horses. Available from: https://www.vmd.defra.gov.uk/ProductInformationDatabase/files/SPC_Documents/SPC_2184008.PDF [Accessed 26 February 2024]

DogStem

Dogstem suspension for injection into dogs contains equine umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell and is indicated for “Improvement in function, reduction of pain and lameness associated with mild to severe osteoarthritis in hip and elbow joints”.

Veterinary Medicines Directorate (2022) Summary of Product Characteristics: DogStem suspension for injection for dogs. Available from: https://www.vmd.defra.gov.uk/ProductInformationDatabase/files/SPC_Documents/SPC_2396489.PDF [Accessed 26 February 2024]

Punzón, E. et al. (2022) Equine umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells demonstrate safety and efficacy in the treatment of canine osteoarthritis: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 260 (15), pp. 1947-1955. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.22.06.0237
Punzón, E. et al. (2023) Local, systemic and immunologic safety comparison between xenogeneic equine umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells, allogeneic canine adipose mesenchymal stem cells and placebo: a randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, no. 1098029. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1098029

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